Next week will mark the three-year anniversary of one of the most significant subway fires in New York City history. At about 3 a.m. on March 27, 2020, a subway train heading north out of Manhattan caught fire as it rolled into the Central Park North–110th Street Station. The blaze killed one train operator and injured 16 other people, while dozens of others had to evacuate the subway. NFPA 130, Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems, specifies fire protection and life safety requirements for underground, surface, and elevated fixed guideway transit and passenger rail systems. It also specifies maximum distances for how far passengers would have to travel to egress in the event of an evacuation. But the current language in the standard lacks technical substantiation for distances to point of safety for both 800-ft (244-m) spacing between cross passages and 2500-ft (762-m) spacing between exits and the surface. Additionally, the minimum emergency walkway widths specified in NFPA 130 are based on outdated research that does not accurately reflect current anthropometric data and limits evacuation to single file. To help the standard reflect the most recent technical data, the Fire Protection Research Foundation is now seeking proposals from project contractors to carry out a new project to establish a comprehensive understanding of the impact of changing criteria for both exit distances and walkway width on the probability of successful egress in rail tunnels, as well as the impact of such changes on emergency response capabilities. Researchers will review emergency egress and rescue challenges in rail tunnels through a literature review, case study analysis, evacuation modeling, comparative analysis, and the development of a research plan. More information about the open request for proposals (RFP) seeking a contractor for “Review of Emergency Egress and Rescue Challenges in Rail Tunnels” is available here or on the Foundation’s website. Instructions on how to respond are included in the RFP. Please submit your proposal to Jacqueline Wilmot by April 7 at 5 p.m. ET.

Some people may not consider Article 90 of NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code® (NEC®), to be a backbone of electrical inspector knowledge. But a familiarity with Article 90 is crucial for electrical inspectors. The sections found within Article 90 provide a comprehensive overview of when the NEC applies and when it doesn’t, how the code is arranged, and how enforcement works—all information that is valuable to any electrical inspector. In this blog, we’ll go over some of the information in Article 90 that is important for electrical inspectors to know. What does the NEC cover? Section 90.2(C) lists areas covered by the NEC, and they are: 1.     Public and private premises, including buildings, structures, mobile homes, recreational vehicles, and floating buildings 2.     Yards, lots, parking lots, carnivals, and industrial substations 3.     Installation of conductors and equipment connecting to the supply of electricity 4.     Installations used by electric utility, such as office buildings, warehouses, garages, machine shops, and recreational buildings, that are not an integral part of a generating plant, substation, or control center 5.     Installations supplying shore power to ships and watercraft in marinas and boatyards, including monitoring of leakage current 6.     Installations used to export power from vehicles to premises wiring or for bidirectional current flow As you can see, the NEC addresses installations and methods of accomplishing those installations in its areas of coverage. The fifth item was added in the 2020 edition of the NEC to address installations of shore power and associated receptacles in marinas and boatyards, which may help lower the risk of exposure to electric shock drowning (ESD) through specific changes made in Article 555. The sixth item was also added in the 2020 NEC to deal with new technology around electric vehicles (EVs) and their ability to provide power to premises electrical systems through the EV charging equipment. The changes are reflected in Article 625. What doesn’t the NEC cover? Just as important as knowing what the NEC covers is knowing what it doesn’t. Section 90.2(D) lists the areas that are not under the purview of the NEC, which helps electrical inspectors navigate the out-of-bounds line. This is not to say there are no electrical inspections happening in those areas—just that if there are any, they are likely done using a code or standard other than the NEC for determining compliance. For example, utility-owned service or transmission line installations are covered by the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) and not the NEC. How is the NEC arranged? The NEC arrangement is outlined in Section 90.3. The NEC is organized so that the requirements found in Chapters 1 through 4 apply generally to all electrical installations referenced in the code, except those referenced in Chapter 8, where the code language must have specific references to the first four chapters. This arrangement helps consolidate general requirements into a few chapters so that they’re not repeated elsewhere in the NEC, which makes it easier for electrical inspectors and installers to locate. Enforcement Information for electrical inspectors around enforcement, interpretations, specific requirements, and what to do with new products, constructions, or materials is found in Section 90.4. According to 90.4(A), the NEC is suitable for mandatory application by governmental bodies that have legal jurisdiction of electrical installations. These bodies are usually state, county, or city governments that incorporate the NEC by reference into their rules or laws. In most instances, electrical inspectors must be working under the authority of an enforcing agency or for an authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) to have any enforcement powers over permitted electrical installations within those jurisdictional boundaries. AHJs have the responsibility for making interpretations of the rules and for deciding on the approval or rejection of equipment or materials used in electrical installations. They may also grant special permission in certain circumstances as they deem necessary. There are two types of rules in the NEC: mandatory and permissive. They are expressed very differently. Mandatory rules are the shall or shall not rules. For example, a mandatory rule would be “the electrical connection of conductors to terminal parts shall ensure a mechanically secure connection without damaging the conductors,” whereas a permissive rule would be “reconditioned equipment shall be permitted except where prohibited elsewhere in the NEC.” As a former AHJ, I frequently would tell electrical inspectors that the code isn’t what you THINK it says; it is what it SAYS it is, so go read the code section before writing a violation or approving an installation. Understanding the difference between mandatory and permissive rules can help the enforcer-installer relationship by having a more accurate inspection. Where to go for more information Electrical inspectors, you are not alone in what you do. NFPA® has an Electrical Inspection Section membership just for you, where you can network with other electrical inspector members. Inspectors can share ideas, talk code, and collaborate on interpretations of the code through NFPA XchangeTM. Having these tools will help create a more consistent enforcement of the NEC.

Fire, smoke, and combination fire/smoke dampers are crucial pieces of equipment used to reduce the spread of fire and smoke throughout a building. For an overview of the basics on fire and smoke dampers refer to this newly developed fact sheet. As with all fire protection and life safety equipment, fire and smoke dampers must be properly inspected, tested, and maintained to ensure that they will operate when needed. This blog will break down the requirements for the inspection, testing, and maintenance (ITM) requirements of fire dampers, smoke dampers, and combination fire/smoke dampers. Although the ITM requirements for each seem similar, there are some variations in the inspection and testing requirements. Fire Dampers Chapter 19 of NFPA 80, Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives, provides the ITM requirements for fire dampers. Operational Test An operational test is performed (typically by the installation personnel) right after the damper is installed to confirm the following: ·      Damper fully closes. ·      There are no obstructions to the operation of the damper. ·      There is full and unobstructed access to the damper. ·      For dynamic dampers, the velocity in the duct is within the velocity rating of the damper. ·      All indicating devices are working and report correctly. ·      The fusible link (if equipped) is the correct temperature classification and rating. Acceptance Testing An acceptance test is a test of the damper that is completed by a qualified person after the damper is installed, an operational test is completed, and the entire heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system is complete. The acceptance test is performed to confirm the following prior to placing the entire system in service: ·      The damper is not damaged or missing any parts. ·      If actuated, dampers close fully upon disconnection of electrical power or air pressure. ·      If actuated, dampers fully reopen when electrical power or air pressure is reapplied. ·      If non-actuated, the damper closes upon removal of the fusible link and is manually reset to the full-open position. Testing must be done under maximum airflow after HVAC system balancing, unless acceptance testing is being peformed for dampers with fusible links. In that case, it is permitted to turn the fan in the system off. Periodic Testing Fire dampers need to be inspected and tested 1 year after the initial acceptance test and then every 4 years, unless the dampers are installed in a hospital, in which case they can be inspected and tested every 6 years. During the periodic inspection of an actuated fire damper, the following needs to be completed: ·      Confirm that the damper is in the full-open or full-closed position as required by the system design. ·      Visually confirm the damper moved to the full-closed or full-open position when commanded. ·      Visually confirm that the damper returns to the original operating position as required by the system design. During the periodic inspection of a non-actuated fire damper, the following needs to be completed: ·      Confirm the fusible link is not painted. ·      Confirm the damper fully closes when the fusible link is removed or activated with the damper in the full-open position. ·      Where equipped, confirm that the damper latches in the full-closed position. ·      Confirm that the damper is returned to the full-open and operational position with fusible link installed. Smoke Dampers   Chapter 7 of NFPA 105, Standard for Smoke Door Assemblies and Other Opening Protectives, provides the inspection, testing, and maintenance requirements for smoke dampers, which are outlined below. Smoke dampers that are part of a smoke control system need to be inspected and tested in accordance with NFPA 92, Standard for Smoke Control Systems. Operational Test An operational test is performed after the damper is installed and after the building’s heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system has been fully balanced to confirm the following: ·      Damper fully closes under both the normal HVAC airflow and non-airflow conditions. ·      There are no obstructions to the operation of the damper. ·      There is full and unobstructed access to the damper. ·      All indicating devices are working and report correctly. Acceptance Testing An acceptance test is a test of the damper that is completed by a qualified person after the damper is installed, an operational test is completed, and the entire HVAC system is complete to confirm the following prior to placing the entire system in service: ·      The damper is not damaged or missing any parts. ·      Dampers close fully upon disconnection of electrical power or air pressure. ·      Dampers fully reopen when electrical power or air pressure is reapplied. Testing must be done under maximum airflow after HVAC system balancing. Periodic Testing Smoke dampers need to be inspected and tested 1 year after the initial acceptance test and then every 4 years, unless the dampers are installed in a hospital, in which case they can be inspected and tested every 6 years. During the periodic inspection, the following needs to be completed: ·      Confirm that the damper is in the full-open or full-closed position as required by the system design. ·      Visually confirm the damper moved to the full-closed or full-open position when commanded. ·      Visually confirm that the damper returns to the original operating position as required by the system design. Combination Fire/Smoke Dampers Combination Fire/Smoke Dampers need to meet the requirements for both fire dampers and smoke dampers when it comes to ITM. Documentation All inspections and tests of fire, smoke, and combination fire/smoke dampers need to be documented and maintained for at least three test cycles. These documents need to include the following: ·      Location of the damper ·      Date(s) of inspection ·      Name of the inspector ·      Deficiencies discovered, if any ·      Indication of when and how deficiencies were corrected, if applicable Maintenance Proper maintenance of fire, smoke, and fire/smoke dampers is crucial to ensure that they remain operational. If a damper is found to not be operational, repairs need to be completed without delay and a periodic test must be completed after the repair is completed to ensure the damper’s operation. All exposed moving parts of the damper need to be lubricated as required by the manufacturer and any reports of an abrupt change in airflow or noise from a duct system needs to be investigated to ensure that it is not related to the damper operation. Summary Proper inspection, testing, and maintenance of fire, smoke, and fire/smoke dampers ensure they are installed and operating properly in the event of an emergency. For more information about the basics of fire, smoke, and combination fire/smoke dampers, check out this fact sheet.

NFPA 70E®, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace® Section 110.5(M)(1) requires auditing of your electrical safety program (ESP) to determine if the ESP continues to comply with current NFPA 70E requirements. Section 110.5(F) requires that the ESP identify the controls by which it is measured and monitored. Electrically safety in the workplace will stagnate without this step where improvements for safety are implemented. Controls are the electrical safety metrics for determining if an ESP is effective and efficient. To evaluate a system, you need to know where you started and how far you have come. Controls must be both measurable and actionable. Metrics are measurable points to determine performance. They are used to determine if improvements to the safety program are required and, if so, what needs to be changed. NFPA 70E requires controls but it is the documented ESP that details what they are and how they are used. It is necessary to identify who is responsible for analyzing the data and incorporating necessary changes. There are two common metrics used to determine the effectiveness of something: lagging and leading. Lagging metrics provide a reactive view of an ESP. Lagging metrics might include the time lost to injuries, the money spent on worker compensation, or the amount of training an employee has received. Under this metric, an injury occurs, and the ESP is changed to address it. A shock is reported, and a change is made. Leading metrics identify and correct contributing factors before an incident occurs. Leading metrics might include the number of hazards identified and eliminated, the reduction in the number of authorized energized work permits, or the number of work procedures altered for de-energized work. Under this metric, a decrease in electricity injuries might be evident after hazard elimination was instituted or after every employee had been trained on the proper use of with extension cords. A combination of these metrics can enhance a safe work program. The next step is determining where further improvements could be made to the system. The ESP must detail what controls are implemented, how they are evaluated, how data is collected, how changes are incorporated, and who is responsible for maintaining the control system. The process should address how much change may occur at one time. Incremental steps are easier to monitor than whole scale changes. If the system heads in the wrong direction it is easier to correct its course, then try something else. Make sure that your ESP has appropriate controls to keep electrical safety progressing in your workplace. This concludes the 12-part series on an ESP. NFPA 70E requirements cannot be used as appropriate procedures or for training for any specific task. A well-developed ESP is critical to achieving electrical safety in the workplace as well as for complying with NFPA 70E and OSHA regulations. Without it there are no policies and procedures available for employee training and there can be no qualified persons without proper training. Review your ESP to make sure all requirements and safety issues are properly addressed.

An area of refuge is one way to satisfy the accessible means of egress requirements. One of the most common questions when it comes to areas of refuge besides “What is an area of refuge?” is “Do the exit stairs need to be oversized?” Like so many other code questions the answer is “It depends.” It is going to depend on what is serving as your area of refuge. Before diving into some key requirements for an area of refuge and identifying what triggers the need to increase the size of the exit stair, for those wondering what area of refuge means and when one might be required, check out my previous blog, “Accessible Means of Egress and the Life Safety Code.” Regardless of what is considered the area of refuge, there are a few things that all areas of refuge have in common. The first is that they must comply with the general means of egress requirements found in Section 7.1 of the 2021 edition of NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®. This section outlines a number of requirements including things like minimum headroom heights, levelness of walking surfaces, and the reliability of the means of egress. Additionally, two-way communication systems are required in areas of refuge. The exact location of the systems will depend on what is being used as an area of refuge. The system itself, though, needs to allow for communication between the elevator landing and either the fire command center or a central control point that has been approved by the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). Directions outlining how to use it, how to request help using the system, and written identification of the location all need to be posted next to the two-way communication system. One key component of determining what can be considered an area of refuge is whether or not the building is protected throughout with an automatic, supervised sprinkler system. Area of Refuge in a Building Protected Throughout by Sprinklers If the building is equipped with sprinklers, then an entire story in the building can be considered an area of refuge provided certain criteria are met. The first is that each elevator landing needs to have a two-way communication system. It also must be equipped with both audible and visible signals. The story must have at least two accessible rooms or spaces that are separated from each other by smoke-resisting partitions. It is important to note that some occupancies, such as new and existing business, exempt the minimum two accessible rooms provision. This means that in those occupancies, only one room or space needs to be accessible. If an occupancy exempts the two accessible room provision, it will typically appear in the XX.2.2.12 paragraph of the occupancy chapter. Area of Refuge in a Building Not Protected Throughout by Sprinklers An area of refuge in a building not protected throughout with sprinklers must meet the specific requirements of 7.2.12.2 and 7.2.12.3. While I can’t cover every single requirement outlined in those particular sections, I will highlight key aspects. The first deals with accessibility. The area of refuge must be situated in such a way that an occupant has access to a public way, by using either an exit or an elevator, without having to go back through building spaces that he or she already passed through. Additionally, the area of refuge must be accessible via an accessible means of egress. This means that travel to the area of refuge cannot involve stairs. An occupant needs to be able to reach the area of refuge by traveling over either level floor or ramps. This also requires careful consideration of available clear widths, particularly through doors. Typically, an accessible route requires 32 inches (810 mm) of clear width through a door. In some existing buildings, door openings may only be 28 inches (710 mm). The narrower door opening can be challenging for occupants using wheelchairs to navigate and may not be considered an accessible route. If the area of refuge relies on the use of stairs to reach the public way, then the clear width of landings and stairs must be at least 48 inches (1220 mm). The clear-width measurement is taken between the handrails and must be maintained at all points below handrail height. There are two exceptions to the 48-inch (1220-mm) minimum width. The first is where the area of refuge is separated from the remainder of the story by a horizontal exit. The second is for existing stairs and landings. For existing landings and stairs, a minimum clear width of 37 inches (940 mm) must be provided at and below handrail height. If the area of refuge relies on the use of an elevator to reach the public way, then the elevator must be approved for firefighters’ emergency operations. Additionally, the power supply must be protected against interruption from a fire in the building that originates outside the area of refuge. Lastly, the shaft housing the elevator must be a smokeproof enclosure. There are two exceptions to the smokeproof enclosure requirement. The first is for areas of refuge that are larger than 1000 ft2 (93m2) and that are created by a horizontal exit. The second exception is for elevators in towers. A tower is a structure that meets a very specific definition and is not occupied by the general public. There is a separate set of criteria for elevators in towers. Regardless of whether an occupant will reach the public way via exit stairs or an elevator, a two-way communications system must be provided. Any doors providing access to the area of refuge must have a sign. The area of refuge sign must read “AREA OF REFUGE,” display the international symbol of accessibility, have a nonglare finish, and have letters that contrast with the background. Further specifics for the sign are outlined in ICC A117.1, Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities. The sign(s) must be illuminated. Tactile signage is also required at each location. Additional signs are required wherever necessary to clearly indicate the direction of travel to an area refuge and at every exit not providing an accessible means of egress. The image below is an example of an area of refuge sign; however, tactile signage would also be required. Another key aspect of an area of refuge is the presence of wheelchair spaces. Each area of refuge needs to have one wheelchair space that measures 30 inches x 48 inches (760 mm x 1220 mm) for every 200 occupants the area of refuge serves. The wheelchair spaces are not permitted to infringe on the required width of the means of egress for the occupant load served and must never reduce the width to less than 36 inches (915 mm). Each wheelchair space must be accessible without having to pass through more than one adjacent wheelchair space. This is where our original question of “Do the exit stairs need to be oversized?” will be answered. The one scenario where you may need to increase the size of your stair is when the building is not sprinklered and you are using the exit stair as an area of refuge. If that particular area of refuge serves 350 people, then two wheelchair spaces would be required. The image below shows what this could look like. The oversized stair comes into play because the means of egress needs to maintain the required width for the occupant load or at a minimum of 36 inches (915 mm). This would include the stair landing. If an area of refuge is less than 1000 ft2 (93 m2), then it needs to be proven that tenable conditions can be maintained within the area of refuge for at least 15 minutes when the separation creating the area of refuge is exposed to the worst-case fire scenario for that occupancy. Tenable conditions can be proven through either calculation or testing. The last aspect of an area of refuge we will cover for a non-sprinklered building is separation. Each area of refuge must be separated from the remainder of the story by a minimum 1-hour fire resistance rated fire barrier. There are two exceptions to this. The first is that when a higher rating is required elsewhere within NFPA 101. The second is if the barrier is an existing barrier with at least a 30-minute fire resistance rating. An example of where a higher rating would be required is if the exit stair enclosure is serving as the area of refuge and the enclosure requires a 2-hour fire resistance rating based on the number of stories it serves. The barriers and all openings in them must minimize air leakage and resist the passage of smoke. Door assemblies in these barriers must have at least a 20-minute fire protection rating. A greater rating is required where other portions of NFPA 101 require a higher rating. The doors must be either self-closing or automatic closing. All new fire door assemblies serving an area of refuge must be smoke leakage rated. Ducts are permitted unless other provisions of NFPA 101 prohibit them. If ducts penetrate the barrier, smoke-actuated dampers or some other approved means of resisting the transfer of smoke into the area of refuge must be provided. Summary There are a number of different configurations for an area of refuge. The presence of or absence of automatic sprinklers will be a driving factor in what can be considered an area of refuge. Regardless of what is considered an area of refuge, it is important to remember that it is just one way to provide an accessible means of egress.

January 2023 was a significant month in the evolution of NFPA 70B as it transitioned from the Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance to the Standard for Electrical Equipment Maintenance. Issued by the NFPA® Standards Council on December 27, 2022, the 2023 edition of NFPA 70B, Standard for Electrical Equipment Maintenance, became effective on January 16, 2023, when it was approved as an American National Standard by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).   It has been 50 years since the first version of NFPA 70B was issued in 1973 as a recommended practice, which provided recommendations on what should be done. Now, the move to a standard provides more enforceability for what must be done when it comes to electrical equipment maintenance. That is a win-win for both the reliability of electrical equipment and the overall safety of the electrical systems and those individuals tasked with working on them.     Why is electrical equipment maintenance important?   Unexpected shutdowns can be detrimental to companies, yet they happen every day due to equipment failure. Just as vehicles require regular upkeep to remain reliable as usage and aging persist, maintenance is also vital for electrical systems to stay dependable when they are needed.   Even more critical than the safety of the electrical system itself is the safety of those responsible for working on those systems. Equipment can be replaced; lives cannot. In part, the defined purpose of NFPA 70B is “to provide for the practical safeguarding of persons, property, and processes from the risks associated with failure, breakdown, or malfunction” of electrical equipment. An additional part of the scope also serves to provide “a means to establish a condition of maintenance of electrical equipment and systems for safety and reliability.”   A key term within the defined purpose of NFPA 70B is condition of maintenance. If you work regularly with electrical codes and standards, that term may be familiar to you. According to a quick search using NFPA LiNK®, the term condition of maintenance is used 59 times in the 2023 edition of NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code® (NEC®), and six times in the 2021 edition of NFPA 70E®, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace®.   While the term is mentioned fewer times in NFPA 70E, establishing a condition of maintenance is paramount in being able to accomplish the requirements outlined within the pages of the document to help keep workers safe. As an example, NFPA 70E, Section 110.5(A), requires employers to implement and document an electrical safety program (ESP) that directs activity appropriate to the risk associated with electrical hazards. Additionally, the ESP is required to include elements that consider the condition of maintenance of electrical equipment and systems.   Without question, electrical equipment that has not been maintained properly or is not functioning properly poses a significant additional risk to those who are working on that equipment and its associated systems. NFPA 70E states that we must address and consider conditions of maintenance for applications—for example, estimating the likelihood of severity in both shock risk and arc flash risk assessments.   NFPA 70B is the standard that can now be both utilized and enforced, to ensure that the proper conditions of maintenance have been established.     Along with NFPA 70B and NFPA 70E, it is also important to keep in mind that the NEC is an important part of this conversation. A code-compliant installation that has been designed, installed, and inspected in accordance with NEC requirements is foundational in being able to incorporate the other standards. Once installation has taken place, NFPA 70B can assist in the maintenance aspect, while NFPA 70E can provide the work practices necessary to keep employees safe, while also meeting Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements. The NEC, NFPA 70B, and NFPA 70E all become critical components, one just as important as the others, in order to achieve the electrical cycle of safety.   While it may take some time for jurisdictions to determine how to best utilize and enforce NFPA 70B, the NFPA Standards Council’s recent decision to make the document a standard opens the door to that possibility. Because proper maintenance is critical to achieving reliability and safety of electrical equipment and systems—and, more importantly, the safety of workers that interact with them—it is well worth the effort to enforce NFPA 70B as a standard, making it another tool to assist in achieving overall electrical safety in the world.   Find out more information and gain free access to the standard by visiting the NFPA 70B  document information page.